SYNTAX-BASED RHETORICAL DEVICES

Anacoluthon

• Definition:  The term literally means “not following.”  It refers to an abrupt change in grammatical or syntactical structure. 
• Effect:  Grammatically, anacoluthon is an error, yet in rhetoric it can be used to dramatize a speaker’s passion or confusion.
• Example:  Agreements entered into when one state of facts exists — are they to be maintained regardless of changing conditions? – John George Deifenbaker

Anadiplosis ***

• Definition:  The term literally means “to double back.”  It refers to a repetition of the last word of one phrase, clause, or sentence at or very near the beginning of the next. 
• Effect:  Can be generated in series to give a sense of logical progression.  Generally, it is used for emphasis of the repeated word or idea, since repetition has a reinforcing effect:
• Examples:  Aboard my ship, excellent performance is standard. Standard performance is sub-standard. Sub-standard performance is not permitted to exist. — Herman Wouk, The Caine Mutiny

Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering. — Yoda, Star Wars

Anaphora (antonym – Epistrophe)

• Definition:  The term literally means “carrying back.”  It refers to the repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences, commonly in conjunction with climax and with parallelism
• Effect:  Creates especially strong emphasis and sense of continuity between rhetorical points.
• Example:  We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing-grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills.  – Winston Churchill

Antithesis

• Definition:  The term literally means “setting opposite.”  It describes the creation of a clear, contrasting relationship between two ideas by joining them together or juxtaposing them, often in parallel structure.
• Effect:  Useful for making relatively fine distinctions or for clarifying differences which might be otherwise overlooked.
• Example:  To err is human; to forgive, divine. – Alexander Pope

Apophasis ***

• Definition:  The term literally means “to say no.”  It describes a process of inductive reasoning that attempts to define an object or idea by what it is not rather than by what it is.  More commonly, it refers to the rhetorical tactic of mentioning an idea by denying that it should be mentioned.
• Effect:  To make an audience aware of a subject while simultaneously creating distance between the speaker and that subject if it is dangerous or undesirable.
• Example:  We will not bring up the topic of my opponent’s numerous affairs in this discussion.

Apostrophe ***

• Definition:  The term literally means “turning away.”  It refers to an interruption of discourse in order to directly addresses a personified thing, either present or absent.
• Effect:  Its most common purpose in prose is to give vent to or display intense emotion, which can no longer be held back.
• Example:  O death, where is thy sting?  O grave, where is thy victory? – 1 Corinthians 15:55

Asyndeton

• Definition:  A deliberate omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses.
• Effect:  To speed up the rhythm of speech; to create the effect of improvisational speech; to make an idea more memorable.
• Example:  I came, I saw, I conquered. – Julius Caesar

Chiasmus ***

• Definition:  Named after the Greek letter “chi,” indicating a criss-cross.  The term refers to a reversal in the order of terms in the second of two parallel clauses.  This is sometimes described as AB-BA structure.
• Effect:  Expresses a truth through complement or contrast in order to provoke thought in the reader.
• Example:  Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. – John F. Kennedy

Climax

• Definition:  The term comes from the Greek word for “ladder.”  It refers to the arrangement of words, clauses, or sentences in the order of increasing importance, weight, or emphasis. Parallelism usually forms a part of the arrangement, because it offers a sense of continuity, order, and movement-up the ladder of importance.
• Effect:  Creates a sense of tension or grandeur, ultimately placing rhetorical emphasis on the final word, phrase, or clause.
• Example:  I think we’ve reached a point of great decision, not just for our nation, not only for all humanity, but for life upon the earth. – George Wald

Epanalepsis

• Definition:  Refers to the repetition of the first word of a clause or sentence at the end. 
• Effect:  Creates rhetorical emphasis.
• Example:  In the world, ye shall have trials, but be of good cheer—I have overcome the world. –John 16:33

Expletive

• Definition:  A single word or short phrase, usually interrupting normal syntax.
• Effect:  Generally used to lend emphasis to the words and emotions immediately proximate to the expletive.
• Example:  in fact, of course, to be sure, indeed, I suppose, I hope, you know, you see, clearly, in any event, in effect, certainly, remarkably.

Hypophora ***

• Definition:  Consists of raising one or more questions and then proceeding to answer them, usually at some length. A common usage is to ask the question at the beginning of a paragraph and then use that paragraph to answer it.
• Effect:  Allows the speaker to anticipate and answer questions the listener may have; alternatively, allows the speaker to convince the listener of the importance of questions he/she may have never considered.
• Example:  Since we have come so far, whom shall be rash enough to set limits on our future progress? Who shall say that since we have gone so far, we can go no farther? Who shall say that the American dream is ended? For myself, I believe that all we have done upon this continent is but a prelude to a future in which we shall become not only a bigger people but also a wiser people, a better people, an even greater people.  – Adlai Stevenson

Litotes

• Definition:  A particular form of understatement generated by denying the opposite or contrary of the word which otherwise would be used.
• Effect:  Depending on the tone and context of the usage, litotes either retains the effect of understatement, or becomes an intensifying expression.
• Example:  And truly, their suffering was not small.  – William Bradford

Parallelism

• Definition:  The term describes any structure that displays recurrent syntactical similarity.
• Effect:  Several parts of a sentence or several sentences are developed and phrased similarly to show that the ideas in the parts or sentences are equal in importance. Parallelism also adds balance and rhythm and, most importantly, clarity to the sentence.
• Example:  The inherent vice of capitalism is the unequal sharing of blessing; the inherent virtue of socialism is the equal sharing of miseries.

Parenthesis

• Definition:  This term refers to the insertion of a word, phrase, or whole sentence as an aside in the middle of another sentence.  Parenthesis can be circumscribed either by dashes--they are more dramatic and forceful--or by parentheses (to make the aside less stringent).
• Effect:  The violence involved in jumping into (or out of) the middle of a sentence to address the reader momentarily about something has a pronounced effect. This device creates the effect of extemporaneity and immediacy.

Pleonasm

• Definition:  This term refers to the use of more words than required to express an idea; being redundant.
• Effect:  Generally this is a syntactical error, but it is done on purpose on rare occasions for emphasis:
• Example:  This was the most unkindest cut of all. – Shakespeare, Julius Caesar

Polysyndeton

• Definition:  The use of a conjunction between each word, phrase, or clause; structurally the opposite of asyndeton.
• Effect:  The rhetorical effect of polysyndeton is one of multiplicity, energetic enumeration, and building up.
• Example:  And every living substance was destroyed which was upon the face of the ground, both man, and cattle, and the creeping things, and the fowl of the heaven; and they were destroyed from the earth: and Noah only remained alive, and they that were with him in the ark. – Genesis 7:22-24

Procatalepsis

• Definition:  This term refers to the rhetorical act of anticipating an objection and answering it
• Effect:  This tactic permits an argument to continue moving forward while taking into account points or reasons opposing either the train of thought or its final conclusions. 
• Example:  It is again objected as a very absurd ridiculous Custom,… But this Objection is I think, a little unworthy so refined an Age as ours. Let us argue this Matter calmly… -- Jonathan Swift, A Modest Proposal

Zeugma

• Definition:  This term refers to a grammatically correct linkage (or yoking together) of two or more parts of speech by another part of speech. Examples of zeugmatic usage would include one subject with two (or more) verbs, a verb with two (or more) direct objects, two (or more) subjects with one verb, and so forth.
• Effect:  The main benefit of the linking is that it shows relationships between ideas and actions more clearly.  The technique is often used to promote satiric effect.